Ubuqiniso baseSpain abuzange buvele ezeni, futhi abuyona into efanayo: buwumphumela wenqubo ende lapho izincwadi, ukudweba, kanye nemicabango kwahlangana khona kancane kancane, ngezinye izikhathi ngentshiseko nangezinye izikhathi ngokungathandi, ngomqondo wokuthi iqiniso lansuku zonke, ngaphandle kokuhlobisa kwakudala noma ukubalekela emazweni afanele, lifanelwe ukuba yisihloko sobuciko. Kusukela ezingxoxweni zemfundiso yenkolo zekhulu le-19 kuya emisebenzini ka-Antonio López noma u-Amalia Avia okholelwa kakhulu kulokho okwenzekayo, kukhona into efanayo: isifiso sokubheka ngqo indawo ezungezile, kungaba umgwaqo eMadrid, ikhishi elithobekile, noma ingqondo eyinkimbinkimbi yomlingiswa oqanjiwe.
Kuyo yonke ikhulu le-19, kanye nokuqhubeka okunezithelo ezinhle kakhulu kuze kube sekhulwini lama-20 nelama-21, ubuqiniso baseSpain bathatha imisinga yaseYurophu (ikakhulukazi yaseFrance), ifilosofi yokucabanga okuhle, izinguquko ezihlulekile, kanye nokuhlanganiswa kobunxiwankulu. Lokhu kuncibilika komlando nokwengqondo kwakha indlela amanoveli abhalwa ngayo kanye nendlela imakethe, igumbi lokulala, noma ubuso besitolo obucwebezelayo obabuvezwa ngayo. Umphumela uba yifa elicebile lobuqiniso, lapho ukuhlaziywa kukaGaldós kwezenhlalo, umbono kaPereda wokuziphatha, ukuqonda kukaClarín kobunkondlo, kanye nezindaba zasemadolobheni ezithule zabantu abangokoqobo baseMadrid banamuhla konke kuhlangana khona.
Kusukela ekukhanyeni kothando kuya ekuqondeni kwangempela kwaseYurophu
Lapho izingxoxo ezijulile mayelana ne-Realism ziqala eYurophu maphakathi nekhulu le-19 , abalobi abaningi nabaculi base bevele begxile kokujwayelekile isikhathi esithile. I-Romanticism, esivame ukuyicabanga njengokubalekela kanye nokuzindla, yayithathe izinyathelo ezibalulekile eziqondene nezinto ezibonakalayo: yayifuna ukuthi izinkondlo ezikhuluma ngezingoma zibize izinto ezijwayelekile, ukuthi imidlalo yaseshashalazini ibonise impilo yesimanje, nokuthi inoveli ingadebeseleli izimo ezibonakalayo zokuphila, kokubili esikhathini esidlule nesamanje.
Ababhali abanjengoStendhal , uBalzac, uDickens, no-Eugène Sue , kanye nababhali bezingubo zaseSpain , babevule indlela "yangaphambi kokuba ngokoqobo" engahlelekile kodwa eqondakala kalula. Imisebenzi yabo ichaze imigwaqo, ukuhweba, abantu abavamile, kanye nokungezwani komphakathi hhayi nje njengesizinda, kodwa njengengxenye ebalulekile yendaba. Eqinisweni, umbhali wenoveli owathonya kakhulu abalingisi baseSpain kwakunguBalzac, ngokumangalisayo owayesabhekwa njengengxenye yesikhathi sothando.
Ngaphakathi kweRomanticism yaseYurophu uqobo, inhlanganisela yezinto ezinhle nezimbi kakhulu ezazicatshangwa nguVictor Hugo yayisivele iqala ukuma: ukuhlala ndawonye esiteji sezikhulu nabantu abavamile, ubukhulu nosizi, ubuhle nobubi. Lokhu kuhlanganiswa kwakuzoba yisisekelo sezincwadi kanye nobuciko obubonakalayo ukuze kuhlukane ngokushesha nohlelo lwakudala olwalugcina inhlekelele kubantu abadumile kanye namahlaya ezinceku, abalimi, noma "amaqembu aphansi."
Nokho, ukuvela kwe-Realism njengenhlangano nakho kwaba nengxenye enamandla yoshintsho lwezenhlalo kanye nolwemibono . Engxenyeni yesibili yekhulu le-19, iYurophu yabhekana nokukhula kwezimboni okusheshayo, ukwanda kwabantu emadolobheni, ukwanda kweqembu labasebenzi, ukuhlanganiswa kwe-Italy neJalimane, ukwanda kwezitimela, amaphephandaba angabizi, kanye nokusakazwa kwemibono nezincwadi emhlabeni wonke okungakaze kubonwe ngaphambili. Konke lokhu kwangena ezingqondweni zabantu futhi kwaphoqa abalobi nabadwebi ukuba bathathe ukuqaphela kwabo ngalezi zikhathi ngokungathi sína kakhulu.
Uhlaka lwaseYurophu: IFrance njengelabhorethri ye-Realism
EFrance, cishe ngo-1850, i-Realism yaqala ukubonakala njengomqondo obucayi kanye nesikhalo esiqhubekayo . Ababhali bokuqala be-theory yenhlangano kwakungu-Edmond Duranty noChampfleury, abasungula amajenali, babhala amanoveli, futhi babhala ama-manifesto afuna ukumelwa "okunembile, okuphelele, nobuqotho" komphakathi wanamuhla. Kubo, i-realism kwakungeyona nje indaba yendaba, kodwa kwakuyinto ebaluleke kakhulu yokuziphatha ngokumelene namanga kanye nokuhlobisa okungadingekile.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, abadwebi abanjengoGustave Courbet basekela isitayela sokudweba esigxile kwabesilisa nabesifazane besikhathi sabo, abangenazo izinganekwane noma imibono yomlando eqanjiwe. UCourbet wayefuna "ukwenza ubuciko obuphilayo," ukuze abonise umhlaba njengoba ayewubona. Lokhu kuhlangana phakathi kokudweba nezincwadi kwakuzoqina: ababhali bamanoveli bakhe izigcawu ezifana nemidwebo, abadwebi bathola ugqozi kumanoveli, futhi ababhali abaningi (uZola, abafowabo bakaGoncourt, uMaupassant, uHuysmans, njll.) baba abagxeki bobuciko.
Inhloso kaDuranty noChampfleury yokufinyelela okuqondile, cishe kwezithombe, nokungakhethi ngokushesha kwaba mfushane. Noma kunjalo, basungula izisekelo ezithile zokuziphatha nezobuchwepheshe: ukusetshenziswa kwemibhalo eqinile, intshisekelo kubalimi, abenzi bemisebenzi yobuciko, kanye nesifiso sokuphakamisa abantu abasezingeni lobuciko ngokwesiko ababhekwa njengabangcolile noma abahlekisayo. Kamuva, uFlaubert, uZola, abazalwane bakaGoncourt, noDaudet bathatha le ndlela kakhulu, behlanganisa izinto ezigciniwe, ukubuka okuqondile, kanye nokubhala okuyinkimbinkimbi ngokwengeziwe.
Iphuzu elibalulekile eligcizelelwa ngu-Erich Auerbach ukuthi i-Realism yangempela ayifaki izinga leqiniso : iphakeme noma iphansi, inhle noma imbi. Lokhu kuhlukana nombono omdala "wamazinga esitayela" owabeka abantu abavamile endaweni yokuhlekisa futhi wagcina ubucayi obudabukisayo kubantu abaphezulu. Lapho uZola echaza izimpilo zabavukuzi ku-"Germinal" noma abazalwane bakaGoncourt belandisa ngokuwa kwencekukazi ku-"Germinie Lacerteux," baletha phambili ezincwadini lokho okwakubhekwa njengokungafanele ukufakwa emsebenzini ongathi sína.
Ukufika kwe-Realism eSpain
ESpain, indlela yokwenza izinto ngendlela engokoqobo yaqala kancane kancane kunaseFrance, kodwa ngamandla angavamile. Le nqubo yaqala ngokusobala ngo- 1870 ngencwadi kaBenito Pérez Galdós ethi "La Fontana de Oro ," inoveli eyavula umjikelezo wokumelwa komphakathi waseSpain wanamuhla, ngokunaka kakhulu onxiwankulu kanye nalokho okubizwa ngokuthi "isigaba esiphakathi," iqembu elalinganakwa kakhulu kuze kube yileso sikhathi yindaba kazwelonke.
Ngawo lowo nyaka, uGaldós washicilela umbhalo obalulekile, othi "Observations on the Contemporary Novel in Spain ," lapho avikela khona "inoveli kazwelonke yokubuka okumsulwa," eqaphela iqiniso lezenhlalo nezepolitiki lezwe. Wacela ukugxila esigabeni esiphakathi ngoba wayesibheka njengesisekelo se-oda elisha lomphakathi kanye nokubamba iqhaza okusebenzayo empilweni yomphakathi. Empeleni, kwakuyisimo esisekela ubuqiniso obuzibophezele emlandweni wamuva.
Nokho, ukusungulwa kwe-Realism eSpain kwakungelula. Ekuqaleni kwawo-60, uFrancisco Giner de los Ríos wayebheka inoveli ye-realism ngokusola, waze wachaza i-realism (kanye nemizwa kanye nokuzimela) njengenye "yokuphambuka" kwezincwadi zanamuhla . Ngokombono wakhe, ezinye izingqikithi, ngenxa yobuhlalu bazo noma ubuhlalu bazo, akufanele zifakwe kwezobuciko. Lokhu kungezwani phakathi kwemibono emihle ngobuhle kanye nokungena kwezinto zansuku zonke kwakuzobumba ingxenye enkulu yempikiswano ebucayi eSpain.
Phakathi kuka-1870 no-1880, iminyaka ye-Sexenio Revolucionario (Isikhathi Sokuvukela Impi Yeminyaka Eyisithupha) kanye nokuqala kokubuyiselwa, amanoveli okuthiwa yi-thesis anda , kokubili ekamu eliqhubekayo (amanoveli okuqala kaGaldós anamuhla, njenge-"Doña Perfecta" kanye ne-"Gloria") kanye nasekamu labalandeli bendabuko (uPereda no-"Don Gonzalo González de la Gonzalera," u-Alarcón no-"El escándalo," njll.). Izazi eziningi zikhombe ukuthi le misebenzi ingokoqobo ngezindlela zayo (incazelo, indawo, abalingiswa abakholekayo) kodwa inengqondo enhlosweni yayo, njengoba ifuna ukukhombisa i-thesis yokuziphatha, yenkolo, noma yezepolitiki.
Ubunjalo bemvelo kanye nempikiswano kumongo waseSpain
Ngasekupheleni kwawo-1870 nasekuqaleni kwawo-80, incwadi ka-Émile Zola ethi Naturalism yaqala ukubonakala eSpain , yabangela impikiswano eshisayo. Izincwadi ezifana nethi "Thérèse Raquin" kanye nethi "L'Assommoir" zahunyushwa futhi zaxoxwa ngazo, kanti indatshana kaZola ethi "The Experimental Novel" nayo yafika, sekwephuzile. Kuyo, wafuna ukusebenzisa izindlela zesayensi yokuhlola ezincwadini: ukubuka okuqinile, ukuzimisela kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nokwezenhlalo, kanye nokuhlola ngabalingiswa njengokungathi bayizifundo zelebhu.
Abagxeki abanjengoManuel de la Revilla bamukele ubuqiniso obulinganiselayo kodwa benqaba ubuNaturalism obunamandla, ababubiza ngokuthi “i-demagoguery of realism” ngenxa yokuthanda kwayo izinto ezingcolile, ezingcolile, noma “ezincane.” ESpain, lapho ubuqiniso obukhona bungakaze bube namandla afanayo naseFrance, kwakunzima ukwamukela ngokugcwele isayensi eyayigcwele imfundiso kaZola. Noma kunjalo, amathuluzi amaningi e-Naturalism (ukubhala ngokucophelela, isithakazelo endaweni yomphakathi, ukuhlaziywa kofuzo kanye nendawo ezungezile) afakwa, ngendlela eguquguqukayo, ebuqinisweni baseSpain.
Ukushicilelwa kwencwadi kaGaldós ethi "La desheredada" (1881) kwaphawula ushintsho olukhulu. Kwakuyinoveli yokuqala yaseSpain lapho ithonya eliqondile noma elingaqondile likaZola libonakala khona ngokucacile, kokubili ekukhetheni umlingiswa ohlukunyeziwe (u-Isidora Rufete) kanye nasekugxileni ezigabeni eziphansi kakhulu zomphakathi waseMadrid. ULeopoldo Alas, uClarín, wadumisa lo msebenzi njengophawu olubalulekile: wagubha isibindi sikaGaldós sokuletha encwadini yobuciko "imihume edabukisayo" yabantu ababebonakala bengabantu abaphelele, abangabonakali, noma abavezwa ngendlela ka-Eugène Sue kuze kube yileso sikhathi.
Phakathi neminyaka embalwa, impikiswano ephathelene ne-Naturalism yaba yindawo yokulwa yobuhlakani yangempela . UGaldós, uClarín, u-Emilia Pardo Bazán, uPereda, uValera, no-Altamira baphikisana ezihlokweni, izingeniso, nezinkulumo mayelana nokuthi inoveli kufanele inamathele kangakanani ezimisweni zesayensi, ukuthi ngabe ivumelekile yini ukuveza izinhlupheko ezithile zokuziphatha noma zomzimba, nokuthi umngcele wawukuphi phakathi kobuciko nemibhalo eqoshiwe. Nakuba abaningi benqaba ukweqisa kukaZola, cishe bonke baphoqeleka ukuba bacabange kabusha ngesimo seqiniso, incazelo yokulimelela, kanye nendima yombhali emphakathini oshintshayo.
Ubuqiniso, Ubunjalo Bemvelo kanye nendima yesayensi
Ukuze uqonde ngokugcwele i-Naturalism, kuyasiza ukuyibeka esimweni sengqondo saleso sikhathi: ingxenye yesibili yekhulu le-19 yayiyinkathi yokholo kwisayensi . Umbono omuhle ka-Auguste Comte, umbono kaDarwin wokuziphendukela kwemvelo, imibono kaProsper Lucas yofuzo, kanye nokugxekwa komlando nomphakathi kukaTaine konke kwaba negalelo esimweni sokuqiniseka okungenamkhawulo emandleni okucabanga okuqonda umhlaba, kusukela ku-biology kuya emlandweni kanye nezifiso zabantu.
EFrance, le ndlela yesayensi yathandwa kakhulu ngezinkampani zokushicilela, amaphephandaba, kanye nemisebenzi ethandwayo; ayizange ihlale isemanyuvesi kuphela kodwa yangena ezingxoxweni zonxiwankulu kanye nezigaba eziphakathi. UZola wasebenzisa ngqo le ndawo: wayefuna ukuthi le noveli ibe uhlobo lwelabhorethri yezenhlalo , lapho imiphumela yemvelo, ufuzo, kanye nesimo sezomnotho kubantu ngabanye ingahlaziywa khona. Ngakho-ke isakhiwo somjikelezo wakhe omkhulu, "uLes Rougon-Macquart," sacatshangwa "njengomlando wemvelo nowezenhlalo womndeni" ngaphansi koMbuso Wesibili.
Isifaniso esidumile sikaZola somuthi womndeni wakwaRougon-Macquart sihlanganisa lesi sifiso: umlingiswa ngamunye uthola izici ezizuzwe njengefa, ezihlanganiswe nezindawo ezithile (emaphandleni, edolobheni, osomabhizinisi, abasebenzi, abefundisi, ibutho…), ezizokhiqiza ukuziphatha okuthile okubikezelwayo. Lesi sakhiwo sinikeza konke ukuhambisana okuhlelekile, kodwa futhi siqukethe ingozi: uma ukuzimisela kwezinto eziphilayo kubonakala kuyinkolelo-mbono ebuthakathaka, lonke uhlaka lwemfundiso luyawa.
Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, uZola wathola ukuthi "amaqiniso amaningi esayensi" ayethembele kuwo ayengaqinile kunalokho ayekukholelwa. Noma kunjalo, ukubaluleka kokubhala kwamanoveli akhe kuyasinda ekuweni kohlaka lwemfundiso. Ukugxekwa kwanamuhla kubonise ukuthi imibhalo yakhe igcwele izingathekiso, izinganekwane, kanye nemizwa engaqondakali (isibonelo, ukuphikisana okungokomfanekiso phakathi kwezwe nedolobha noma izithombe zezitshalo zofuzo) ezidlula kakhulu uhlaka lwesayensi.
ESpain, ukwamukelwa kwe-Naturalism kwakukhetheka kakhulu. Abalobi bamanoveli bafaka iminikelo yabo ewusizo (ukuqina okukhulu okuchazayo, ukunaka umhlaba ongaphansi komhlaba, ukuzindla ngendawo yomphakathi) kodwa abavamile ukwamukela isifiso sokuguqula inoveli ibe yisayensi . Isibonelo, uClarín, wavikela izimiso ezithile ze-Naturalism, kodwa wagcizelela ukuthi ubuciko bunendlela yalo yolwazi, engenakuguqulwa ibe yi-positivism, nokuthi izincwadi zingafinyelela ezindaweni zangempela (zengqondo, zokuziphatha, ezingokomfanekiso) eziphunyukile ekuhlolweni kwelabhorethri.
Ulimi, isitayela, kanye nokungabonisi ubuntu enoveli ekhuluma ngezinto ezenzeka ngempela
Enye yezinkinga ezidida kakhulu kubalobi bekhulu le-19 kwakuwukuthi bangaluguqula kanjani ulimi lokubhala nomsebenzi omusha wokuguqula impilo yansuku zonke ibe ubuciko. Iphrozi eyatholwa ku-Romanticism, egcwele inkulumo yokukhuluma nokukhuluma okukhulu, ayizange ifaneleke ukuchaza ngokunembile isitolo, i-tavern, noma inkulumo yomthengisi wesitolo. Kwaba nesidingo sokwandisa ububanzi bolimi lokubhala, kufaka phakathi ingxoxo yansuku zonke, izinkulumo ezidumile, kanye namagama obuchwepheshe achaza impilo yanamuhla.
ESpain, le nqubo ibonakala ngokucacile emsebenzini kaPérez Galdós : umehluko phakathi kweprozi ethi "La Fontana de Oro" noma ethi "Doña Perfecta" kanye neyethi "Fortunata y Jacinta" mkhulu kakhulu. UGaldós, owayethanda ikhono likaPereda lokuhlanganisa ulimi oluhlakulelwe nenkulumo ethandwayo, wakhuthaza ulimi olukwazi ukubamba zonke izici zengxoxo yansuku zonke. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, uClarín, ezindabeni zakhe ezithi "On Style in the Novel," wahlaziya ngokucophelela izixazululo zikaBalzac, uFlaubert, uZola, kanye nabafowabo bakaGoncourt, efuna isitayela esasikhonza kakhulu umbono weqiniso.
KuClarín, isitayela enoveli yanamuhla kumele sibe "nesizotha" : asikwazi ukufihla amaqiniso noma sibe umbukwane ozimele. Uyawuthanda umbono kaFlaubert ohlelekile, kodwa wesaba ukuthi "isitayela ngenxa yesitayela" siphazamisa umfundi ezweni elivezwayo. Ngokufanelekile, ngokusho kwakhe, umfundi kufanele "akhohlwe" indlela yokubhala futhi azizwe egxile empilweni yabalingiswa, ngaphandle kokuqaphela isandla sombhali, yize leso sandla sihlela konke.
Ngakho-ke ukubaluleka kwabaningi abakholelwa emaqinisweni omlando okubeka endabeni yokungabonisi ubuntu . Inhloso iwukuba umlandisi angangeni ekuboniseni ukuziphatha okuhle, amahlaya alula, noma ukuphambuka okuveza ngokusobala imibono yakhe. Nokho, ukungabonakali ubuntu akufanele kudidaniswe nokungathathi hlangothi: ngisho nephrozi kaFlaubert ebandayo noma izindaba zikaZola "ezinenhloso" kakhulu zigcwele umbono wombhali, ukuthambekela kwabo okunengoma, ukuhlekisa kwabo, kanye nozwela lwabo kanye nokucasula. Inkinga iwukuzibamba okukhulu kunokungabikho kwangempela kokuzithoba.
Ekulandiseni kweSpanishi, umbhali ngamunye ulinganisela ukungezwani phakathi kombono womuntu siqu kanye nokuzibamba ngendlela yakhe . UGaldós ugcina ukuba khona okuhlekisayo futhi okuvame ukufundisa, yize ekwenza kube lula ngokuhamba kwesikhathi; uPereda uzitika ngezintshumayelo zokuziphatha ezicacile; uClarín, ku-"La Regenta," uhlanganisa umlandisi obonakala eqotho nokuqhuma okuphawulekayo kozwela, ukuhlekisa, kanye namagama engoma. Nokho, bonke bayazi ukuthi ukunemba kwabalingiswa kanye nobunzima bokuphila okuvezwayo kuyisici sobuciko babo.
Inoveli, uhlobo lwenkosi lwe-Realism
Engxenyeni yesithathu yokugcina yekhulu le-19, le noveli yaba uhlobo oluvelele lweqiniso laseYurophu naseSpain. UClarín wayibiza ngokuthi "umlando wekhulu leminyaka" ngoba, ngokungafani nemidlalo yaseshashalazini, izinkondlo zamagama, noma indaba emfushane, yavumela intuthuko engasheshi yezwe lomphakathi eliyinkimbinkimbi, elinabalingiswa abaningi, izikhala, kanye nezikhathi ezihlanganisiwe. Ngaphezu kwalokho, kwakuyilolu hlobo olwalufinyelela kalula izilaleli eziningi ngenxa yokuhlelwa kwezindaba emaphephandabeni kanye nezincwadi ezingabizi.
Ngesikhathi kuxoxwa nge-Realism ngaleso sikhathi, ukugxila kwakucishe kube njalo enoveli , ngisho nalapho impikiswano ishintshela eshashalazini. UZola waphupha "ngendlela yemvelo yaseshashalazini," kodwa waqaphela ukuthi isiteji sasithwele imikhuba eminingi kakhulu, kusukela ekubumbeni kwakudala kuya ezidingweni zombukiso, okwakuvimbela inkululeko efana neyokulandisa. UClarín, umthandi omkhulu weshashalazi, wavuma ukuthi amadrama asemfashinini ayesasindwa amaqhinga othando namadivayisi e-melodrama.
ESpain, lobu bukhulu bale noveli buvumela ukwakheka "kobuqiniso obukhulu" bekhulu le-19 obuhlanganisa ndawonye imizwa yemibono ehlukene kakhulu: ubuKatolika obugcina ubuqotho bukaPereda no-Alarcón, inkululeko eqhubekayo kaGaldós noClarín, ubuKatolika obugxekayo bukaPardo Bazán, ubuhle obulinganiselayo bukaValera… Bonke bathatha "njengezinto ezintsha" njengeqiniso elisheshayo, lasemadolobheni noma lasemaphandleni, futhi bakha izinganekwane ezilingiswayo ezilawulwa yimithetho yokuqiniseka elandelana, ngangokunokwenzeka, leyo yokuphila kwangempela.
UClarín wasikhumbuza ukuthi umsebenzi wombhali wenoveli okhuluma ngezinto ezingokoqobo "ukubonakalisa konke ukuphila, ngaphandle kwezinto ezicashile ." Akukhona ukuziphakamisa kancane emhlabathini nokusikisela imihlaba engcono, kodwa mayelana nokudalula umhlaba njengoba unjalo, ngobukhulu bawo kanye nosizi lwawo, sithemba ukuthi kulokhu kubhekana umfundi uzokhipha uhlobo oluthile lolwazi lokuziphatha noma lomphakathi. Yingakho abakhuluma izinto ezingokoqobo baseSpain bengalahli uhlangothi lokuziphatha: bakholelwa, ngamunye ngendlela yakhe, ukuthi ubuciko bungasiza ekwakheni unembeza.
Ubuqiniso benkondlo, imfihlakalo kanye nemingcele ye-positivism
Nakuba inkulumo evelele yekhulu le-19 yayibonakala ithambekele ekucaciseni okunemibono emihle , umkhuba wokubhala ngokwawo wadlula ngokushesha lolo hlaka. Abantu abaningi abakholelwa emaqinisweni ezinto, kusukela kuFlaubert kuqhubeke noClarín noGaldós, bezwa ukuthi iqiniso aliphelelwa amandla okubonakalayo futhi alinakunqunyelwa ngokuphelele ezincazelweni zesayensi. Kwakukhona izindawo ezimnyama, ukuphikisana okujulile, izifiso ezingavunywanga, kanye nezimfihlakalo zokuziphatha okwakubonakala sengathi zikwazi ukuthintwa ubuciko kuphela, hhayi isayensi.
Isibonelo, uClarín uphikelela ngokuthi iqiniso likhona, kodwa liyimfihlakalo . Lapho evikela ukuzwelana kwakhe ne-Naturalism, ugcizelela lokhu ngokuthi ubuciko buneqiniso elihlukile kunesayensi. Uthi le noveli ingakha "ulwazi oluphelele lomhlaba" ngombono ongenakufezwa ucwaningo olusekelwe ebufakazini. Ngakho-ke, ngezinye izikhathi sikhuluma "ngobuqiniso benkondlo": ubuqiniso obungashiyi ukuqaphela ngokucophelela, kodwa obunesibindi sokusikisela izincazelo ezijulile, cishe ezingokoqobo.
Lokhu kungezwani kubonakala ngokucacile emsebenzini kaZola: ngakolunye uhlangothi, isisindo sokuzinqumela simdonsela emibonweni yokuphelelwa yithemba lapho abalingiswa bebonakala bebanjwe khona yifa kanye nendawo ezungezile; ngakolunye uhlangothi, isimo sakhe sengqondo sokuthemba kanye nokholo lwakhe oluqhubekayo kumqhubela esiphethweni esivulekile, egcwele ithemba esenzweni esihlangene, isayensi eqondiswe kahle, noma ubulungiswa. Uchungechunge lwakhe lokugcina lwenoveli, "The Three Cities" kanye ne-"The Four Gospels," seluvele lubonisa ukuphenduka okunengqondo nokungokomoya.
Kanye ne-Realism kanye ne-Naturalism, enye inhlangano enkulu yaseYurophu yachuma: lokho esingakubiza ngokuthi "i-supernaturalism" noma uphawu , okwaqala ngoBaudelaire kwaze kwaphetha ngoVerlaine, uRimbaud, noMallarmé. Lezi zimbongi zazingathembi umhlaba wezinzwa njengeqiniso "langempela" futhi zafuna, ngokusebenzisa uphawu, umculo womlomo, kanye nokuxhumana phakathi kwemizwa, ukufinyelela kokungaziwa, okungazi lutho, noma okungaphezu kwalokho okudlulele. ESpain, uBécquer noRosalía de Castro, ngamunye ngesitayela sakhe, bamele le ndlela ehlukile.
Uma sibheka konke, isimo sezincwadi sengxenye yesibili yekhulu le-19 akuyona nje impi emnyama nemhlophe phakathi kwabantu abasebenzisa imvelo abanonya kanye nabantu abasebenzisa izimpawu ezingezona ezemvelo. Ngaphakathi kwababhali abaningi, ikakhulukazi abantu abasebenzisa i-realistic abangcono kakhulu, kukhona inhlanganisela yokulambela iqiniso kanye nokwazi imfihlakalo . Lokhu kuhlanganiswa kuzoba yisihluthulelo sokuqonda ukuvela okulandelayo kwezincwadi zaseSpain esizukulwaneni sika-'98 kanye ne-Modernism, kanye nokuphikelela kobuqiniso obujulile nobuzigxekayo ekhulwini lama-20.
Ingxoxo phakathi kwezincwadi nobuciko obuhle
Esinye sezici ezithakazelisayo kakhulu ze-Realism yekhulu le-19 ukuhlangana phakathi kwenoveli nomdwebo . Okokuqala ngqa, ababhali nabadwebi baphendukela entweni efanayo: iqiniso lesimanje, elinemigwaqo yalo, ingaphakathi lasekhaya, ubuso obungaziwa, kanye nezindawo zasemadolobheni noma zasemakhaya. Lokhu kuhlangana kwezindikimba kwaholela ekushintshisaneni okukhulu kwamasu nemibono.
EFrance, ubungane phakathi kukaZola noCourbet, uManet noCézanne; phakathi kukaMaupassant noMonet; kanye nokuba khona kwababhali ezitudiyo nasemakhefini abadwebi abangokoqobo nabasebenzisa i-impressionist kwadala uhlobo lobumbano ngokumelene nezikole kanye namandla amisiwe. Eminye imidwebo yaphefumulelwa ngqo yizincwadi (njenge-"Nana" kaManet edumile), kanti uZola waze wanikezela inoveli yonke, ethi "The Masterpiece," empilweni nasekukhungathekeni komdwebi we-avant-garde.
Ithonya lisukela kukhanvasi kuya ekhasini. Amanoveli amaningi kaFlaubert, uZola, abafowabo bakaGoncourt, noma uClarín ahlelwe njengokulandelana kwezithombe : izigcawu ezihlelwe ngokucophelela ezinezindawo eziningi, imidlalo yokukhanya nesithunzi, kanye nokunaka okucishe kube ngobuciko ezindaweni kanye nemithamo. Izincazelo ezinde, ngezinye izikhathi ezakhiwe ngemisho ejwayelekile, zifuna ukuthwebula imibono eshintshashintshayo njengokungathi ziyizinhlayiya zokudweba emdwebweni we-Impressionist.
ESpain, ukuxhumana phakathi kwezincwadi nokudweba kuyinto engavamile, kodwa akubalulekile kangako. UPedro Antonio de Alarcón ubhala izindaba ngemibukiso kazwelonke; uFrancisco María Tubino uqhathanisa ukuthambekela kokubona izinto ngendlela efanele kanye neyokucabanga ngendlela engokoqobo encwadini yakhe ethi "Art and Contemporary Artists in the Peninsula" futhi uvikela ukuphakama kokubona izinto ngendlela engokoqobo. UGaldós ngokwakhe ungenelela ngendlela ekhethekile empikiswaneni yezithombe ngo-1884, ekhuthaza abaculi abasebasha ukuba "badwebe isikhathi sabo, lokho abakubonayo" futhi baveze ukungabaza ngomlando wezemfundo.
Ukugxekwa kwezincwadi, ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuvame ukusebenzisa amagama aqoqwe ekudwebeni ukuze kudunyiswe amandla okuchaza ababhali abathile. UGaldós, ekhuluma ngoDickens , umqhathanisa "nomuntu onombala omkhulu" okwazi ukuveza isiphepho noma indawo nge-"brushstroke" eyodwa ekhanyisa ngokushesha imininingwane eminingi. Futhi enoveli yaseSpain engokoqobo, akuvamile ukuthi umlingiswa noma isigcawu sifaniswe nomdwebo odumile, njengalapho u-Ana Ozores, umlingiswa oyinhloko we-"La Regenta," evame ukuhlotshaniswa ne-"The Madonna of the Chair" kaRaphael.
Kusukela ku-Realism yekhulu le-19 kuya ku-Realism yaseSpain yanamuhla
Ifa le-Realism yekhulu le-19 aligcini nje ezincwadini zokufunda: likhuthaza isiko elide lokudweba i-realism yaseSpain eliqhubeka nanamuhla. Ngesikhathi sokubusa kukaFranco kanye nengxenye yesibili yekhulu lama-20, abanye abaculi bavuselela ukunambitheka kokwethembeka endabeni, ukubheka ngesineke, kanye nokuboniswa ngokucophelela kwezindawo zansuku zonke, kodwa bakwenza lokho ngokuqonda okuthonywe kakhulu yinkumbulo yomlando kanye nokuhlangenwe nakho kwasemadolobheni.
Isibonelo esiphawulekayo yilesi sika- Amalia Avia (1930-2011), oqeqeshwe eSan Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts kanye nomuntu obalulekile wesikole esibizwa ngokuthi iMadrid School. Imidwebo yakhe igxile edolobheni laseMadrid: izicabha ezicwebezelayo, iminyango engenalutho, izitolo ezindala, izimpawu ezisuliwe kancane. Azikho izithombe zabantu ngaphambili, kodwa ubuntu obunamandla buyabonakala emikhondweni yokuphila eye yadlula kulezi zindawo. UCamilo José Cela umchaze ngokuthi "umdwebi wezigebengu" kanye "nomlobi wezindaba obuhlungu" walokho "kuphila okudlule lapha" okushiywe yizakhiwo nemigwaqo.
Omunye umuntu ongaphikiswa ngu- Antonio López García (owazalwa ngo-1936), mhlawumbe umdwebi waseSpain ophilayo ofunwa kakhulu emakethe yamazwe ngamazwe. Ophinde waqeqeshwa eSan Fernando, futhi owayephila ngesikhathi sika-Amalia Avia, u-Antonio López usedume ngezindawo zakhe zedolobha (njenge-"Madrid from Torres Blancas"), ingaphakathi lakhe, kanye nezithombe zakhe zabantu, imisebenzi yakhe eyathuthukiswa eminyakeni noma ngisho namashumi eminyaka. Isitatimende sakhe esithi, "umsebenzi awupheli, kodwa kunalokho umuntu ufinyelela umkhawulo wamathuba akhe," sembula izidingo ezinkulu zobuchwepheshe nemizwa zokuba ngokoqobo kwakhe.
Isikole samaRealist saseMadrid —esasihlanganisa, ngaphezu kukaLópez no-Avia, abaculi abanjengoFrancisco López, uJulio López, uMaría Moreno, u-Esperanza Parada, no-Isabel Quintanilla—simelela indlela yaseSpain ecacile yokuqhubeka nesiko lamaRealist: ngaphandle kwemibono eqinile, ehlukanisiwe nemfashini yangesikhathi, kodwa ngokwethembeka okuphelele esihlokweni esibonwayo kanye nokuxhumana okuqinile kwabantu phakathi kwamalungu aso. Kuthiwa kwakuyiqembu lobuciko kuphela lesikhathi salo lapho abesifazane babenokuvelela okufanayo nabesilisa emibukisweni nasekuqashelweni.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, abanye abaculi baseSpain abakholelwa ezintweni ezingokoqobo bandise ububanzi babo bezihloko kanye nokubonisa. UCarmen Laffón (Seville, 1934–2021) wakha isitayela sokudweba esingokomfanekiso kanye nokudweba okuhlobene eduze nendawo yase-Andalusia, ikakhulukazi iDoñana National Park. Imidwebo yakhe, enemibala yayo ekhangayo nekhanyayo, kanye nemifanekiso yakhe ethambile emhlophe, emnyama, kanye nempunga, ingatholakala eminyuziyamu efana ne-MoMA, iReina Sofía, kanye neBritish Museum, ubufakazi bokufinyelela kwamazwe ngamazwe kobuqiniso baseSpain banamuhla.
UCristóbal Toral (owazalwa ngo-1940) , waseCádiz, uthuthukise isithombe sakhe esiphathelene nokufuduka, amasudikesi, ukufuduka, kanye nokungabi naso isithunzi, esebenzisa ulimi olungokoqobo olunethonya elikhulu elibonakalayo. Ukufakwa kwakhe kwencwadi ethi "The Abdication of the King" (2014), lapho ebeka khona isithombe seNkosi uJuan Carlos I esitsheni sikadoti, kwabonisa izinga lapho ubuqiniso bungaba yithuluzi lokugxekwa kwezepolitiki kanye nomphakathi. UMario Vargas Llosa ugcizelele ikhono lakhe lokudala "inganekwane yepulasitiki yokufuduka" ecebile neshukumisayo.
Ngolunye uhlangothi, u-Eduardo Naranjo (Monesterio, Badajoz, 1944) usebenza ngaphakathi kobuqiniso obugcwele ikhwalithi enamandla efana nephupho: ama-canvas akhe abonakala eshintshashintsha phakathi kokuphaphama nokulala, ngezigcawu ezichazwe ngokucophelela kodwa ezivulekele ukuchazwa okungokomfanekiso. Uphinde abe ngumdidiyeli wezincwadi: uchungechunge lwakhe lwencwadi kaFederico García Lorca ethi "Poet in New York" (1986-1991) kanye nethi "Genesis" (1983-1985) lubonisa izinga lapho indlela engokoqobo yokwenza amabhulashi ingahambisana khona nesimo senkondlo ngokugcwele.
Ubuqiniso baseSpain buvuselelwa yizizukulwane ezisencane. UFernando Cobo (Madrid, 1975) umele icala elithakazelisayo: wamukela ubuqiniso kuphela ngemuva kokuvakashela umbukiso ka-Antonio López eReina Sofía Museum ngo-1993. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, udwebe izithombe zedolobha ezingaphezu kuka-200, ezinye zazo ezinkulu, zamadolobha afana neVenice, iNew York, iHavana, iBarcelona, neMadrid uqobo. Ibhulogi yakhe iveza imisebenzi eminingi yale, lapho ubuhle bedolobha langempela bubonakala bungahlotshisiwe, kodwa ngokubuka okusobala ukuthi kuthandeka ngendaba.
Phakathi kwabantu ababephila ngesikhathi sika-Antonio López, u-Isabel Quintanilla (1938-2017) unendawo ekhethekile kakhulu. Njengomncane kunabo bonke eqenjini laseMadrid, wanikela iningi lomsebenzi wakhe ezintweni eziphilayo ezinganyakazi kanye nezinto zangaphakathi zasekhaya: amatafula alula, izinto zansuku zonke, ukukhanya okugeleza ngefasitela, amakhishi, noma amakhona endlu. Konke lokhu kwadwetshwa ngokwethembeka okungavamile kanye nokuzwela okuseduze. Yena ngokwakhe wakhala ngokumelelwa kangcono eminyuziyamu eMunich, eHamburg, noma eWashington kunaseMadrid, okukhuluma kakhulu ngendlela ubuqiniso besimanje obungokomfanekiso obuye baziswa ngayo ngaphandle kweSpain.
Leli qembu labaculi libonisa ukuthi ubuqiniso baseSpain, hhayi nje ukuba yinsalela yekhulu le-19, buhlala buyindlela ephilayo yokuveza imibono , ekwazi ukuzibandakanya nezinkinga zanamuhla (inkumbulo, ukufuduka, inkinga yezikhungo), ukuhlola izimbongi zansuku zonke, nokukhanga izilaleli ezahlukahlukene. Akukho ukuphikisana phakathi kokuqina okungokomfanekiso nokujula okungokomfanekiso; ngokuphambene nalokho, abaningi balaba baculi babonisa ukuthi lapho amehlo ebonakala enembile, kulapho izincazelo ezifihliwe zembulwa khona.
Uma sibheka uhambo oluvela ku-Romantic pre-realism kuya kumanoveli kaGaldós noClarín, kusukela kuZola kuya kuma-realism aseMadrid ekhulu lama-20, kuba sobala ukuthi i-realism yaseSpain akuyona into engashintshi, kodwa isiko elixoxisana njalo nesikhathi salo: lisebenzisa isayensi ngaphandle kokuzithoba kulo, liphikisana ngezimpawu ngaphandle kokulahla imfihlakalo, lithembele ekudwebeni ukuze libhale kangcono futhi, kakade ekhulwini lethu, liyaqhubeka nokuthola emigwaqweni, ezindaweni zemvelo nasezintweni ezivamile izinto ezingcono kakhulu zokuqhubeka nokutshela ukuthi singobani.
